Forensic psychologists play a vital role in the juvenile justice system, serving as essential bridges between mental health expertise and legal decision-making. These professionals provide their services both in the courtroom and as clinicians, offering comprehensive assessments that help courts understand the mental state, developmental status, and rehabilitation potential of young offenders. Their work is fundamental to ensuring fair, developmentally appropriate, and effective outcomes for juvenile cases while balancing the dual goals of accountability and rehabilitation.
Understanding the Unique Role of Forensic Psychology in Juvenile Justice
Juvenile forensic psychologists utilize current research and practice-based knowledge in forensic developmental psychology to improve the judicial and child welfare systems. Unlike their counterparts who work with adult offenders, these specialists must navigate the complex intersection of developmental psychology, clinical assessment, and legal standards. In the juvenile courts, they account for the special needs and concerns of youth involved with the legal system, emphasizing the importance of interventions designed to rehabilitate youth.
The juvenile justice system itself has evolved significantly since its inception. The first juvenile court was established in Cook County, Illinois, in 1899, based on the legal principle of parens patriae, which emphasizes the state's responsibility to act in the best interests of individuals who are unable to protect themselves, with juvenile courts traditionally emphasizing rehabilitation rather than punishment. This rehabilitative focus creates a unique environment where forensic psychologists can make meaningful contributions to both individual cases and broader systemic improvements.
Comprehensive Roles and Responsibilities
Forensic psychologists working within the juvenile justice system perform diverse and multifaceted roles that extend far beyond simple psychological testing. Their expertise informs critical decisions at every stage of the legal process, from initial contact with law enforcement through post-disposition treatment and supervision.
Dual Functions: Assessment and Treatment
Forensic psychologists can assist judges and attorneys who make important decisions about minors involved in the juvenile justice system, with their forensic evaluations providing caseworkers with important information about the youth's emotional, behavioral, and cognitive functioning. Beyond assessment, they can provide treatment and other interventions to juveniles and their families, with the major purpose being to bring about an overall improvement in emotional and behavioral adjustment and functioning while decreasing the likelihood that youth will re-offend.
This dual capacity distinguishes juvenile forensic psychology from many other forensic specialties. While maintaining objectivity in evaluations, these professionals also contribute directly to rehabilitation efforts, helping young offenders develop the skills and insights necessary for successful reintegration into society.
Policy and Systemic Contributions
Juvenile forensic psychologists have made important contributions to the legal system by allowing policymakers to better understand the specific treatment needs of youth within the juvenile justice system. Their research and clinical insights have informed important legal reforms, including Supreme Court decisions recognizing the developmental differences between adolescents and adults in criminal culpability and sentencing.
Types of Forensic Evaluations in Juvenile Cases
Forensic psychologists conduct various specialized evaluations tailored to the specific legal questions before the court. Each type of assessment requires distinct expertise and methodological approaches while maintaining rigorous scientific standards.
Competency to Stand Trial Evaluations
Perhaps the most common question is whether a child is competent to stand trial. Competency evaluations assess whether a juvenile defendant possesses sufficient present ability to consult with their attorney with a reasonable degree of rational understanding and whether they have a rational and factual understanding of the proceedings against them.
Juveniles present special challenges to forensic evaluators, necessitating consideration of their knowledge of the legal system and the moving target that is their developmental status and the context in which that development is occurring, with developmentally and culturally sensitive competency evaluations requiring familiarity with factors including the nature of the juvenile justice system, cultural issues, differing presentations of adolescent psychopathology, and the intersection of cognitive and emotional development on competency-related capacities.
Young age (less than 12 years-old), a prior diagnosis or treatment for a mental illness or intellectual disability, borderline intellectual functioning, a significant history of a learning disorder, and pretrial observations suggestive of deficits in memory, attention, or reality testing should elicit an evaluation of adjudicative competence.
Miranda Rights Comprehension
Forensic psychologists frequently evaluate whether juveniles understood and validly waived their Miranda rights when providing statements to law enforcement. Questions may involve whether an adolescent gave a voluntary statement to police and whether he understood his Miranda waiver. These evaluations require careful assessment of the youth's cognitive abilities, developmental level, and understanding of legal concepts, as well as consideration of the circumstances surrounding the interrogation.
Transfer and Waiver Evaluations
In waiver or transfer hearings, forensic evaluators play a central role in helping the court determine whether the juvenile can be rehabilitated through the resources available in the juvenile justice system, requiring a thorough understanding of the adolescent's developmental history, response to past treatment, the presence of mental health conditions, and factors that may have complicated previous interventions.
These high-stakes evaluations can determine whether a young person faces prosecution in the juvenile or adult criminal justice system. In a waiver or transfer hearing, the child who is accused of a crime in juvenile court may be tried in adult court and subject to adult criminal sanctions, with the essential role of a forensic evaluator usually being to help the court determine whether or not the child may be rehabilitated if he or she receives the appropriate treatment and services.
Comprehensive Psychological Evaluations
Forensic psychologists conduct thorough psychological evaluations that assess multiple domains of functioning. The psychological evaluation usually consists of a review of documents from the referral source, a clinical interview with the client, and psychological testing, providing an expert analysis of the client's current functioning and a reasonable estimation of the client's future behavior.
These evaluations typically examine cognitive abilities, emotional functioning, behavioral patterns, trauma history, family dynamics, educational performance, and social relationships. The comprehensive nature of these assessments ensures that courts receive a complete picture of the young person's psychological functioning and needs.
Risk and Needs Assessments
Assessment and diagnosis are crucial components of the juvenile justice process, with forensic psychologists using a variety of risk assessment tools and techniques to identify the likelihood of a juvenile offender committing another crime. These assessments help predict the likelihood of reoffending and identify specific areas where the juvenile requires support, treatment, or intervention.
The risk of future violence is present at almost every stage of the adult and juvenile justice system. Forensic psychologists employ validated risk assessment instruments specifically designed for juvenile populations, recognizing that risk factors and protective factors may differ significantly from those relevant to adult offenders. This information guides critical decisions about detention, treatment programs, community supervision, and resource allocation.
Developmental Considerations in Juvenile Forensic Assessment
One of the most critical aspects of juvenile forensic psychology is the recognition that children and adolescents are fundamentally different from adults in ways that have profound legal and clinical implications. Understanding these developmental differences is essential to conducting valid and reliable forensic evaluations.
Psychosocial Maturity and Development
The physical, social, emotional and cognitive capabilities and characteristics of children and adolescents are in a state of development, which sets them apart from adults. This ongoing developmental process affects virtually every aspect of forensic assessment, from the youth's ability to understand legal proceedings to their capacity for rational decision-making and impulse control.
The recognition of the developmental stage of adolescence showed that adolescents did not possess the same capacities as adults. Modern neuroscience has confirmed what developmental psychologists have long understood: the adolescent brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex responsible for executive functions like planning, impulse control, and considering consequences, continues developing well into the mid-twenties.
Executive Functioning and Decision-Making
Deficits in executive functioning are often reflected in everyday difficulties with impulse control and adaptation to social demands, with delays and deficits highly correlated with psychopathologies characterized by cognitive and behavioral impulsivity, as well as delinquent and rule-breaking behaviors. Understanding these neuropsychological factors is crucial for forensic psychologists assessing juvenile offenders.
Neuroimaging research is providing new insights into the biological basis of developmental changes in decision-making and impulse control. This research has important implications for assessments of criminal responsibility, competency, and rehabilitation potential, as it demonstrates that many characteristics associated with juvenile offending are developmentally normative rather than indicative of fixed antisocial traits.
Unique Evaluation Challenges
When conducting forensic evaluations in juvenile justice settings, juvenile forensic psychologists must consider factors unique to juveniles: children and adolescents may be less able to understand differences in a doctor's role, may mistake multiple interviews and history taken by the juvenile forensic psychologist as a developing relationship, and may presume the relaxed, friendly tone and demeanor of the juvenile psychologist as a developing relationship.
These unique challenges require forensic psychologists to carefully explain their role, the purpose of the evaluation, and the limits of confidentiality in age-appropriate language. In the initial encounter with the minor, parent, or both, the evaluator should assess their understanding of the forensic evaluation, who requested it, and why, and should inform all parties that no therapeutic or treatment relationship will be established following the evaluation.
Evidence-Based Interventions and Treatment Approaches
Beyond assessment, forensic psychologists play a crucial role in designing, implementing, and evaluating treatment interventions for juvenile offenders. Forensic psychologists in juvenile justice settings focus on prevention and rehabilitation, evaluating young offenders, providing counseling and recommending interventions that address developmental needs.
Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a widely used intervention in juvenile justice, based on the idea that an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected, and has been shown to be effective in reducing recidivism rates among juvenile offenders. CBT helps young offenders identify and modify thinking patterns that contribute to antisocial behavior, develop problem-solving skills, and learn more adaptive coping strategies.
Adaptations of CBT, such as trauma-focused CBT, have been developed to address the specific needs of juvenile offenders who have experienced trauma. Given the high prevalence of trauma exposure among justice-involved youth, these specialized interventions are particularly important.
Family-Based Interventions
Family-based interventions, such as functional family therapy (FFT), are widely used in juvenile justice, with FFT being a family-based intervention that focuses on improving communication and problem-solving skills within the family. These approaches recognize that family dynamics and relationships play crucial roles in both the development and resolution of delinquent behavior.
Family involvement in treatment can provide essential support for behavioral change, address systemic factors contributing to offending, and improve long-term outcomes. Forensic psychologists often work with families to strengthen protective factors and reduce risk factors within the home environment.
Trauma-Informed Care
Trauma-informed care models are being incorporated into juvenile justice settings, recognizing that many young offenders are also victims of adverse childhood experiences. Reports estimate that as many as 70% of the youth in detention centers meet criteria for mental health disorders, with trauma-related conditions being particularly prevalent.
Trauma-informed approaches recognize how exposure to violence, abuse, neglect, and other adverse experiences affects development, behavior, and mental health. These models emphasize safety, trustworthiness, peer support, collaboration, empowerment, and cultural sensitivity in all interactions with justice-involved youth.
Pharmacological Considerations
Pharmacological interventions, such as medication, may be used in conjunction with other interventions to help juvenile offenders manage symptoms of mental health disorders, for example to treat symptoms of ADHD such as inattention and hyperactivity, however the use of pharmacological interventions must be carefully considered, as they can have negative side effects and may not address the underlying causes of the offender's behavior.
The Mental Health Crisis in Juvenile Justice
The intersection of mental health and juvenile justice represents one of the most pressing challenges facing the system today. Juvenile justice centers have a long tradition as an unfortunate stop for young offenders who need mental health care, with reports estimating that as many as 70% of the youth in detention centers meet criteria for mental health disorders.
Many adolescents in the juvenile justice system often have undiagnosed mental health problems, making psychological evaluations essential for rehabilitation. Common diagnoses include conduct disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), substance use disorders, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and developmental disabilities.
The U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics reported that 43% of state prisoners and 23% of federal prisoners have a diagnosed mental illness, with the American Psychological Association noting a growing trend toward rehabilitation over punishment, especially in cases involving juveniles and individuals with behavioral health needs. This shift creates expanded opportunities for forensic psychologists to contribute their expertise to more therapeutic and rehabilitative approaches.
Assessment Methods and Tools
Forensic psychologists employ a variety of assessment methods and instruments when evaluating juvenile offenders. The selection of appropriate tools requires consideration of the specific referral question, the youth's developmental level, cultural background, and the psychometric properties of available instruments.
Clinical Interviews
The clinical interview remains the cornerstone of forensic assessment. Forensic psychologists may be asked to evaluate adults, adolescents, or children, typically seeing clients individually but may see clients together as a family to observe interactions, with time usually being limited and the background information provided by the referral source being extremely helpful to the clinical interview, with a thorough social history including developmental history, descriptions of the behavior that led to the referral, school performance, employment history, family and social relationships, and legal history.
Psychological Testing
Standardized psychological tests provide objective data about cognitive functioning, personality characteristics, mental health symptoms, and specific competencies. However, More often than not, evaluators who require use of formal assessment instruments in the evaluation of juvenile adjudicative competence are compelled to use existing measures designed for adults, with estimates suggesting that adult-normed competency instruments are utilized in approximately one third of juvenile adjudicative competence assessments.
This limitation highlights the ongoing need for development and validation of assessment instruments specifically designed for juvenile populations. When using adult-normed instruments, forensic psychologists must carefully consider developmental factors and interpret results with appropriate caution.
Collateral Information
Sources of data fall into three broad categories: self-report, assessment tools and third-party records or interviews, with the evaluator needing to be clear on what information is required, why it is required, how that information relates to the legal question and how reliable and valid the data sources are, with interviews with the young person, documents from government departments, school records, police records and interviews with third parties such as teachers, family members, counsellor, and juvenile justice staff all being sources of information.
Multiple sources of information help forensic psychologists develop a comprehensive understanding of the youth's functioning across different contexts and verify self-reported information. This multi-method, multi-source approach enhances the reliability and validity of forensic conclusions.
Ethical Considerations and Professional Standards
Forensic psychologists working with juvenile populations face unique ethical challenges that require careful navigation and adherence to professional standards. The vulnerability of young clients, the high stakes of legal proceedings, and the potential for role confusion all create ethical complexities.
Distinguishing Forensic and Treatment Roles
No therapeutic relationship is established between the forensic evaluator and the minor being evaluated, with the forensic evaluator's primary duty being to serve as an objective expert to the court, and in that role, the expert's opinion may harm the minor's interests—for example if he or she opines that the juvenile defendant is fit to stand trial.
Although the forensic evaluator has a unique duty to serve as an objective expert to the court, special circumstances in juvenile forensic evaluations may foster confusion between the roles of forensic evaluator and treating psychiatrist, with ensuring that minors and parents understand these differences being key to preserving any ongoing or future treatment relationships.
Informed Consent and Assent
Children and adolescents cannot consent to release medical records of prior treatment, with consent needing to be obtained from a parent or guardian. Beyond legal consent from parents or guardians, forensic psychologists should also obtain assent from the minor being evaluated, explaining the evaluation process, purpose, and limits of confidentiality in developmentally appropriate language.
Cultural Competence
Cultural competence is essential in juvenile forensic assessment. Forensic psychologists must recognize how cultural factors influence development, behavior, family dynamics, and responses to authority. Research is needed to inform the development of policies and practices that address the needs of diverse juvenile populations, including research on the impact of systemic racism and bias on juvenile justice outcomes, as well as the development of strategies to address these issues.
Evaluators must be aware of their own cultural biases and how these might influence their assessments and recommendations. They should use culturally appropriate assessment methods and interpret results within the context of the youth's cultural background and experiences.
Challenges Facing Forensic Psychologists in Juvenile Justice
Despite their crucial contributions, forensic psychologists working in juvenile justice face numerous challenges that can impact the quality and availability of their services.
Resource Limitations and High Caseloads
Many jurisdictions struggle with limited resources for forensic mental health services. High caseloads can compromise the thoroughness of evaluations, limit time for collateral contacts and record review, and reduce opportunities for ongoing professional development. These resource constraints are particularly problematic given the complexity of juvenile forensic assessments and the high stakes involved.
Complexity of Adolescent Development
The examiner must understand and have experience evaluating children and adolescents to appreciate child psychopathology, normal child/adolescent development, and risk factors for future delinquent behavior, for instance, not all children or adolescents who set fires are future arsonists, and some fascination with fire and fire play is common among children and adolescents, with knowing what is normal and what is not being critical.
The rapidly changing nature of adolescent development creates a "moving target" for assessment. Behaviors and characteristics observed at one point in time may change significantly as the youth continues to develop, making predictions about future functioning particularly challenging.
Limited Specialized Training
Some forensic mental health assessments are undertaken by psychologists who have no forensic training, and despite this, there are no formalised Australian minimum standards to ensure reports are helpful to the courts and reflect sound evaluation methodologies. This challenge is not unique to Australia; many jurisdictions lack adequate training opportunities and quality assurance mechanisms for juvenile forensic evaluations.
Evaluators need to have knowledge in the area of forensic psychology, developmental psychology, clinical and child adolescent psychology, and children and families. This broad knowledge base requires extensive training and ongoing professional development.
Balancing Multiple Stakeholder Interests
Forensic psychologists must navigate the sometimes competing interests of the court, the juvenile defendant, families, attorneys, and society. Maintaining objectivity while recognizing the vulnerability of young clients requires careful ethical reasoning and professional judgment.
The Impact of Forensic Psychology on Juvenile Justice Outcomes
The contributions of forensic psychologists extend beyond individual cases to influence broader systemic outcomes and policy developments.
Reducing Recidivism
Early psychological support can reduce recidivism and redirect youth toward healthier futures, making this a critical area of growth. By identifying mental health needs, recommending appropriate interventions, and helping match youth with evidence-based treatment programs, forensic psychologists contribute to reduced reoffending rates.
Forensic psychology plays a critical role in the assessment, diagnosis, and rehabilitation of juvenile offenders, and by using evidence-based interventions and considering the unique needs of each offender, forensic psychologists can help to reduce recidivism rates and improve outcomes for juvenile offenders.
Promoting Rehabilitation Over Punishment
As juvenile justice systems once again turn their focus from confinement to rehabilitation, mental health providers have major opportunities to inform and improve both practice and policy. Forensic psychologists provide the evidence base supporting rehabilitative approaches, demonstrating that developmentally appropriate interventions can effectively address the underlying factors contributing to delinquent behavior.
Informing Legal Reforms
Research and expert testimony from forensic psychologists have contributed to landmark legal decisions recognizing the developmental differences between juveniles and adults. These contributions have influenced Supreme Court rulings limiting the use of life without parole sentences for juveniles and restricting the death penalty for offenders who were under 18 at the time of their crimes.
Specialized Populations and Considerations
Certain populations within the juvenile justice system require specialized knowledge and assessment approaches.
Juvenile Sex Offenders
Evaluating juvenile sex offenders requires specialized training in adolescent sexual development, sexual behavior problems, and risk assessment specific to this population. Despite low rates of reoffense, juvenile sex offenders are subject to registration, and community notification may be required for the remainder of a juvenile's life. This reality makes accurate assessment and appropriate intervention recommendations particularly important.
Girls in the Juvenile Justice System
Female juvenile offenders often have distinct pathways to delinquency, higher rates of trauma exposure, and different treatment needs compared to their male counterparts. Forensic psychologists must understand these gender-specific factors when conducting assessments and making recommendations.
Youth with Developmental Disabilities
Juveniles with intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, or other developmental disabilities face unique challenges in the justice system. These youth may be particularly vulnerable to false confessions, may struggle to understand legal proceedings, and require specialized interventions tailored to their cognitive and adaptive functioning levels.
Dually Diagnosed Youth
Many justice-involved youth have co-occurring mental health and substance use disorders. These dually diagnosed youth require integrated treatment approaches that address both conditions simultaneously. Forensic psychologists play a crucial role in identifying these co-occurring disorders and recommending appropriate comprehensive treatment.
The Future of Forensic Psychology in Juvenile Justice
The field of juvenile forensic psychology continues to evolve in response to new research, changing legal standards, and emerging challenges.
Advancing Research and Evidence-Based Practice
At a time when neuropsychological perspectives on youth delinquency are gaining momentum, findings highlight the importance of translating scientific knowledge into formats that align with the needs of everyday forensic practice. Ongoing research into adolescent brain development, risk and protective factors, and intervention effectiveness will continue to inform forensic practice.
Technology Integration
Challenges include addressing the needs of diverse juvenile populations and integrating technology into assessment and intervention. Technology offers both opportunities and challenges for juvenile forensic psychology. Telehealth platforms can expand access to evaluations and treatment, particularly in rural or underserved areas. Digital assessment tools and computerized testing may enhance efficiency and standardization. However, technology integration must be carefully implemented to ensure reliability, validity, and appropriate use with juvenile populations.
Addressing Disparities
Racial and ethnic disparities persist throughout the juvenile justice system, from initial contact with law enforcement through disposition and treatment. Forensic psychologists have important roles to play in identifying and addressing these disparities through culturally competent assessment, advocacy for equitable treatment, and research examining the sources and impacts of bias in the system.
Developing Specialized Training Programs
The complexity of juvenile forensic work demands specialized training beyond general clinical or forensic psychology education. Recurring themes identified include establishing guidelines, standards and templates for psychological practice, providing training to forensic evaluators to ensure they have the necessary skills and knowledge, ensuring critical supervision of evaluators, and ensuring that psychologists, lawyers and judicial officers have a shared understanding of the competencies required.
Fellowship programs, specialized certificate programs, and continuing education opportunities focused specifically on juvenile forensic assessment are expanding to meet this training need. These programs emphasize the integration of developmental psychology, clinical assessment, legal knowledge, and ethical practice.
Best Practices in Juvenile Forensic Assessment
Professional organizations and expert consensus have identified several best practices that should guide juvenile forensic evaluations.
Comprehensive, Multi-Method Assessment
High-quality forensic evaluations employ multiple assessment methods, including clinical interviews, psychological testing, collateral interviews, and thorough record review. This multi-method approach enhances the reliability and validity of conclusions and provides a more complete picture of the youth's functioning.
Developmentally Informed Practice
All aspects of the evaluation process should be tailored to the developmental level of the youth being assessed. This includes using age-appropriate language, selecting developmentally suitable assessment instruments, interpreting results within a developmental framework, and considering how ongoing development may affect future functioning.
Attention to Context
Juvenile behavior cannot be understood in isolation from the contexts in which it occurs. Forensic psychologists should carefully assess family dynamics, peer relationships, school experiences, neighborhood characteristics, cultural factors, and other contextual influences that shape development and behavior.
Clear Communication
Forensic reports should clearly address the referral question, explain assessment methods and their limitations, present findings in an organized and logical manner, and offer conclusions that are well-supported by the data. Reports should be written in language accessible to legal professionals while maintaining scientific rigor.
Collaboration with Other Professionals
Interdisciplinary dialogue should be a dynamic and ongoing component of the forensic evaluation system to clarify and address the needs of the client, the court, and the professionals involved. Effective juvenile forensic practice requires collaboration with attorneys, judges, probation officers, social workers, educators, and treatment providers.
At court level, the forensic psychologist understands the language of the courts and the child, having the expertise to translate psychological information into a legal framework and make recommendations to the court on the best treatment of the child, and apart from the court, the role of forensic psychologist is very crucial in police system because he has the ability to train and evaluate the police and other enforcement agencies on the administration of juvenile justice system.
This collaborative approach ensures that psychological expertise is effectively integrated into legal decision-making and that interventions are coordinated across systems. Regular communication among professionals involved in a case can prevent fragmentation of services and promote more coherent, effective responses to juvenile offending.
The Importance of Ongoing Professional Development
The field of juvenile forensic psychology is dynamic, with new research findings, evolving legal standards, and emerging best practices requiring ongoing professional development. Forensic psychologists must stay current with developments in adolescent neuroscience, risk assessment methodology, evidence-based interventions, legal precedents, and ethical guidelines.
Professional organizations such as the American Academy of Forensic Psychology, the American Psychology-Law Society, and the American Psychological Association offer continuing education opportunities, workshops, and conferences focused on juvenile forensic issues. Board certification in forensic psychology through the American Board of Professional Psychology represents an advanced credential demonstrating specialized expertise.
Conclusion: The Essential Contribution of Forensic Psychologists
Forensic psychologists are indispensable to a fair, effective, and developmentally appropriate juvenile justice system. Their expertise bridges the gap between psychological science and legal decision-making, ensuring that courts have access to objective, evidence-based information about young offenders' mental health, developmental status, and rehabilitation potential.
By conducting comprehensive assessments, recommending appropriate interventions, providing expert testimony, and contributing to policy development, forensic psychologists help the juvenile justice system achieve its dual goals of accountability and rehabilitation. Their work recognizes that young people are fundamentally different from adults in ways that matter for legal culpability, competency, and capacity for change.
As the juvenile justice system continues to evolve toward more rehabilitative, trauma-informed, and evidence-based approaches, the role of forensic psychologists will only grow in importance. Their contributions help ensure that justice for young offenders is tempered with mercy, that interventions are matched to individual needs, and that the system promotes positive development rather than simply punishing past behavior.
The challenges facing forensic psychologists in this field—limited resources, complex developmental considerations, ethical dilemmas, and the need for specialized training—are significant but not insurmountable. Through continued research, professional development, interdisciplinary collaboration, and commitment to best practices, forensic psychologists will continue to make essential contributions to a more just and effective juvenile justice system.
For more information about forensic psychology and the juvenile justice system, visit the American Psychological Association's forensic psychology resources or explore training opportunities through the American Board of Forensic Psychology. Additional resources on juvenile justice reform can be found at the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.