Memory reconsolidation represents one of the most groundbreaking discoveries in modern neuroscience, fundamentally changing our understanding of how memories work and opening revolutionary pathways for treating psychological trauma, anxiety disorders, and other conditions rooted in distressing memories. This process reveals that our memories are far more dynamic and malleable than previously believed, offering hope for millions who struggle with the emotional burden of traumatic experiences.
What Is Memory Reconsolidation?
Memory reconsolidation is a neurobiological process through which previously consolidated memories become temporarily unstable when recalled, creating a window of opportunity for modification before being stored again. This discovery has overturned decades of scientific consensus that once memories were fully formed and consolidated in the brain, they remained fixed and unchangeable.
Retrieval can bring memories to a labile state, creating a window to modify its content during reconsolidation. During this critical period of instability, the memory can be updated, strengthened, weakened, or even disrupted through various interventions, such as pharmacological agents and behavioral procedures.
The phenomenon was first documented in the 1960s but remained largely unexplored for decades. The phenomenon was "rediscovered" in the late 1990s by researchers such as Jean Przybyslavski, Susan Sara, Karim Nader, and Joseph LeDoux and has since received renewed attention and exploration with the advent of modern neuroscience tools. This rediscovery has sparked an explosion of research into how memories can be therapeutically modified to reduce suffering.
The Neuroscience Behind Memory Formation and Storage
To understand memory reconsolidation, it's essential to first grasp how memories are initially formed and stored in the brain. Memory formation involves multiple brain regions working in concert, each playing specialized roles in encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
Key Brain Regions Involved in Memory
A psychologically relevant list includes the amygdalae (fear) and hippocampal (memory) formations, visual system pathways, the default mode network, thalamic networks, and multiple subcortical and cortical sensory systems interfaces. Each of these regions contributes uniquely to how we process and store experiences.
When an event becomes engraved in our memory, two parts of the brain are simultaneously activated: the amygdala and the hippocampus. They represent the memory control center. The hippocampus is located at the center of our episodic memory and holds the facts of the memory; whereas the amygdala retains the emotions attached to the event. If an emotional event is worth remembering, the amygdala and the hippocampus save the memory in the long-term memory.
This modular nature of memory storage is crucial for understanding how reconsolidation therapies work. Because emotional and factual components of memories are stored separately, it becomes possible to target the emotional intensity of a traumatic memory while preserving the factual recollection of what occurred.
The Consolidation Process
Memories are thought to be initially modifiable when they are first acquired and then solidify through the synthesis of new proteins in a process known as consolidation. It is widely accepted that new experiences are initially stored in the hippocampus as rapid associative memories, which then undergo a consolidation process to establish more permanent traces in other regions of the brain.
This consolidation process doesn't happen instantaneously. It unfolds over hours and involves complex molecular and cellular events that stabilize the memory trace. During this time, the brain synthesizes new proteins and strengthens synaptic connections between neurons, gradually transforming a fragile short-term memory into a more durable long-term memory.
How Memory Reconsolidation Works: The Mechanics of Memory Modification
The reconsolidation process follows a specific sequence of events that creates an opportunity for therapeutic intervention. Understanding these steps is crucial for both researchers developing new treatments and clinicians applying them in practice.
The Three-Phase Process
Memory reconsolidation occurs in three distinct phases, each with its own characteristics and therapeutic implications:
1. Memory Reactivation and Destabilization
The process begins when a consolidated memory is retrieved or reactivated. This retrieval doesn't simply play back the memory like a recording; instead, it fundamentally changes the memory's state. During memory recall, many of the same cells that were active during encoding and reactivated during consolidation are reactivated during recall. These ensembles of cells have been referred to as the memory engram cells, stably representing a specific memory.
However, recent studies suggest that these stable memories and their representations are much more dynamic and flexible than previously thought, including memory updating, reconsolidation, forgetting, schema learning, memory-linking, and representational drift. When reactivated, the memory enters a temporarily unstable or "labile" state, during which it becomes susceptible to modification.
2. The Reconsolidation Window
The period during which a reactivated memory remains malleable is known as the reconsolidation window. Despite significant advances in memory reconsolidation research, most studies have focused on its early phase, from 0 to 3 h post-reactivation. Consequently, the prevailing view is that reconsolidation largely recapitulates synaptic consolidation processes that initiate immediately after memory acquisition and last hours and entail molecular and cellular events.
Numerous studies have investigated this period to elucidate reconsolidation mechanisms, understand long-term memory persistence, and develop therapeutic strategies for memory-related psychiatric disorders. However, the temporal dynamics of post-retrieval memory processes have been largely overlooked, leading to mixed findings and hindering the development of targeted interventions. Emerging evidence suggests that some mechanisms triggered after fear memory retrieval can influence either reconsolidation or persistence in different time windows.
This window of opportunity is critical for therapeutic interventions. If new information or experiences are introduced during this period, they can be incorporated into the memory as it reconsolidates, potentially altering its emotional impact or other characteristics.
3. Restabilization
After the reconsolidation window closes, the memory restabilizes in its modified form. This restabilization again involves protein synthesis and the strengthening of synaptic connections, similar to the original consolidation process. The key difference is that the memory now incorporates any new information or modifications introduced during the labile period.
Conditions Necessary for Successful Reconsolidation
There are several boundary conditions that ensure that reconsolidation occurs as intended. These include 1) the brevity of the stimulus presentation: it must be long enough to activate the memory but not so long as to create an extinction memory. 2) There must be a mismatch between learned expectations and the new elements in the learning context. 3) Only information that is relevant to the target memory will be incorporated. 3) New learning must be presented within a window of labilization, lasting one or more hours.
These conditions highlight the precision required for effective reconsolidation therapy. The memory must be activated sufficiently to destabilize it, but not so extensively that the brain creates a new extinction memory instead. There must also be a "prediction error" or mismatch between what the person expects and what actually occurs, which signals to the brain that the memory needs updating.
Therapeutic Applications of Memory Reconsolidation
The discovery of memory reconsolidation has opened numerous therapeutic avenues, particularly for conditions involving distressing or maladaptive memories. The susceptibility of long-term memory to manipulation has sparked interest in targeting memory reconsolidation therapeutically. There has been considerable effort to explore whether reconsolidation update procedures might be used as interventions for PTSD or substance use disorders, for example. Additionally, understanding whether reconsolidation processes contribute to memory impairments in Alzheimer's disease might also lead to the development of novel interventions to slow cognitive decline.
Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
PTSD represents one of the most promising applications for reconsolidation-based therapies. Over time, mental health outcomes might be improved by such interventions that disrupt unpleasant, stressful, or fear-based traumatic memories and then facilitate memory updating with non-threatening information. Applied MR processes may result in long-lasting changes to habitual responses to distressing and traumatic memories.
Several specific therapeutic approaches have been developed and tested for PTSD treatment using reconsolidation principles:
Propranolol-Assisted Reconsolidation Therapy
One of the most extensively studied approaches involves the use of propranolol, a beta-blocker medication, combined with memory reactivation. A treatment of this sort would need to combine elements of exposure therapy – so as to reactivate the trauma memories to put them into an unstable state and require them to reconsolidate – and Propranolol therapy – so as to interfere selectively with the reconsolidation process before it can occur.
During the later script-driven imagery, the patients given propranolol after reactivation exhibited markedly lower levels of fear reactivity (as measured through heart rate and skin conductance) than the patients given placebo. This clearly suggests that the emotional aspects of the trauma memory were remembered less readily or less strongly in the propranolol group than in the placebo group.
This innovative treatment method involves taking a beta-blocker (propranolol) before each 25 min. therapy session. Reconsolidation Therapy™ aims to treat Trauma- and Stressor-related Disorders (DSM-5, 2013), like posttraumatic stress disorder, adjustment disorder, complicated grief. By administering the beta-blocker with the Brunet Method™, it reduces the emotional impact of the traumatic memory and transforms it into a "banal bad memory". The post-traumatic stress symptoms are reduced, allowing the patient to return to their normal life.
The Reconsolidation of Traumatic Memories (RTM) Protocol
The Reconsolidation of Traumatic Memories Protocol™ (RTM Protocol™) is an innovative treatment for PTSD. RTM Protocol™ has been scientifically proven to remove the nightmares, flashbacks, and the directly related emotional problems of post-traumatic stress in less than five hours.
RTM helps people process a traumatic memory by changing elements of the memory. These changes can dramatically reduce anxiety symptoms associated with the event. During RTM sessions, a trained counselor will help you change elements of a traumatic memory to make it feel less threatening.
The RTM protocol uses visualization techniques rather than pharmacological interventions. Clients work with trained therapists to mentally revisit traumatic memories in a controlled, safe manner, then modify specific elements of those memories through guided imagery exercises. This approach allows the memory to reconsolidate with reduced emotional intensity while preserving the factual content.
Clinical Evidence and Effectiveness
We found a large effect of reconsolidation interventions in the treatment of PTSD (11 studies, n = 372, SMD: −1.42 (−2.25 to −0.58), and a smaller positive effect of consolidation interventions in the prevention of PTSD (12 studies, n = 2821, RR: 0.67 (0.50 to 0.90). Only three protocols (hydrocortisone for PTSD prevention, Reconsolidation of Traumatic Memories (RTM) for treatment of PTSD symptoms and cognitive task memory interference procedure with memory reactivation (MR) for intrusive memories) were superior to control.
The "Paris Mémoire Vive" project, conducted in partnership with the Paris Hospital Network (AP-HP), has treated up to 400 patients with PTSD following the terrorist attacks in Paris and Nice. This exceptional project shows that it is now possible for victims of PTSD to recover in 6 weeks.
Treatment of Phobias and Anxiety Disorders
Beyond PTSD, memory reconsolidation techniques have shown promise in treating various phobias and anxiety disorders. The principle remains the same: reactivate the fear memory, introduce corrective information or experiences during the reconsolidation window, and allow the memory to restabilize with reduced emotional intensity.
In most cases, they would like to reduce the emotional impact of the experience, which is part of the memory itself, without actually changing the facts that are remembered. This distinction is crucial—the goal isn't to erase memories or create false ones, but rather to modify the emotional response associated with them.
Art Therapy and Memory Reconsolidation
An emerging application involves using art therapy techniques to facilitate memory reconsolidation. It is proposed that memory reconsolidation (MR) processes are a common therapeutic change mechanism for arts therapies and that arts therapies' processes uniquely facilitate the MR of autobiographical and distressing memories. This study aims to review memory reconsolidation, identify the necessary neuroscientific conditions for therapeutic MR, and examine the alignment between Art Therapy Relational Neuroscience (ATR-N) principles, interventions, and MR conditions.
The MR-based Art Therapy Relational Neuroscience (ATR-N) guidelines have been supported by research and include (a) safely identifying which experiences are maintaining the issues or symptoms; (b) juxtaposing these experiences with novel evidence that can generate experiential disconfirmation, that is, predictive errors, and symptom transformation by means of a corrective resilient emotional reaction; and (c) promoting potential permanent updating of the memory.
Comparison with Traditional Therapeutic Approaches
Memory reconsolidation-based therapies differ fundamentally from traditional approaches to treating trauma and anxiety disorders. Understanding these differences helps clarify the unique advantages and potential limitations of reconsolidation interventions.
Exposure Therapy and Extinction Learning
Traditional exposure therapy works through a process called extinction learning. In this approach, patients are repeatedly exposed to trauma-related cues or memories in a safe environment until their fear response diminishes. However, this doesn't erase the original fear memory; instead, it creates a new, competing memory that the situation is safe.
Reappraisal and associated learning phenomena such as habituation (e.g., the anxiety feelings lessen in intensity as people realize in their guts that they are not really dying) lead to new learning with the result that the patient's anxiety tends to become reduced in intensity over time and repeated exposure.
The problem with extinction-based approaches is that the original fear memory remains intact and can resurface under certain conditions, a phenomenon known as spontaneous recovery. Reconsolidation-based therapies, in contrast, aim to modify the original memory itself rather than simply creating a competing memory.
Efficiency and Treatment Duration
One significant advantage of reconsolidation-based therapies is their potential efficiency. Traditional trauma-focused therapies often require many sessions over months or even years. In contrast, some reconsolidation protocols show significant results in just a few sessions.
For example, I have used Accelerated Response Therapy (ART) since 2016 and I see positive responses from my clients in as little as 5 sessions and sometimes in a single session. Treatment time is shortened because, again, you do not talk through the memory. Instead, you mentally just touch upon a memory, while being guided and coached. So, together we edit your responses and guide your neural pathways to build that new response.
Factors Affecting Memory Reconsolidation Success
Not all memories are equally susceptible to reconsolidation, and several factors influence whether a memory will successfully destabilize and be modified during therapeutic interventions.
Memory Age and Strength
Long-term memories are likely more resistant to change as they are stable and vague, whereas more recent vivid memories may be more susceptible to modification. Research on memory decay and interference, as well as on cognitive capacity, proposed that (a) less-used memories can fade, that is, soften, over time and (b) new memories can then possibly interfere with the salience of old memories.
It has been argued that older memory traces may be less prone to destabilization than more recent ones, perhaps because repeated intermediate instances of destabilization and reconsolidation can cause a gradual increase in memory strength. This presents a challenge for treating long-standing traumatic memories, though research continues to explore ways to overcome this limitation.
Memory Type and Characteristics
Others have suggested that other factors may be impacting these issues, such as whether the memories are implicit or explicit, their degree of vividness, the level of arousal during recall, and whether they are semantic-factual or episodic-personal. For example, if the threat is not impending, it may be more easily modified than an imminent threat.
Individual Differences
Not all memories may be equally susceptible to destabilization, and in this respect, there might be quite a gap between memories that are typically created in the lab and especially the traumatic memories of individuals with PTSD. Particularly in humans, the aversive memories that are subjected to reconsolidation interference in the lab are typically recent, relatively mild and controllable (e.g., a mild electric shock, emotional pictures). Real-life traumatic experiences are characterized by rather stronger emotional memories that are established and retrieved under high levels of stress. Moreover, at the time of treatment, the traumatic experience may not be recent.
The Role of Prediction Error in Memory Updating
A critical component of successful memory reconsolidation is the introduction of a "prediction error"—a mismatch between what the memory predicts will happen and what actually occurs during reactivation. This prediction error signals to the brain that the memory needs updating.
Asking for such an incomplete, that is, interrupted, reminder can function in and of itself like a predictive error. In summary, a small reminder of the problem is therapeutically established, and then the new information, facilitated by ATR-N CREATE interventions, may modify, supplement, or erase the original memory response.
This principle underlies many reconsolidation-based interventions. By carefully controlling how memories are reactivated and what new information is introduced, therapists can create the conditions necessary for adaptive memory updating.
Challenges and Limitations in Clinical Application
While memory reconsolidation holds tremendous promise, translating laboratory findings into effective clinical treatments has faced several challenges.
Mixed Clinical Results
Although fear memory reconsolidation modulation has attracted substantial research interest for its therapeutic potential in PTSD, clinical applications have been challenged by mixed outcomes and ongoing debate. Many unanswered questions may account for these discrepancies.
The evidence about the clinical effectiveness of reconsolidation and consolidation therapies for the treatment and prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is uncertain because these therapies include a wide range of interventions and the study results varied widely. However, 3 other systematic reviews reported conflicting findings with some reconsolidation therapies indicating significant improvements in PTSD symptoms or severity versus control, whereas other reconsolidation therapies had no significantly different outcomes than the control groups.
Methodological Challenges
We cannot directly measure if consolidation/reconsolidation has occurred in human participants, and here we only included therapies which specifically tried to target consolidation/reconsolidation i.e. drawn on this theory as a hypothesised mechanism of change. This, however, provides no assurance that reconsolidation has been achieved.
This fundamental challenge—the inability to directly observe whether reconsolidation has occurred in humans—makes it difficult to optimize protocols and understand why some interventions succeed while others fail.
Ethical Considerations
The ability to modify memories raises important ethical questions. While reducing the emotional impact of traumatic memories can be therapeutic, there are concerns about potentially altering or erasing memories that may be important for personal identity or legal purposes. Therapists must carefully balance the therapeutic benefits against these ethical considerations.
Future Directions and Emerging Research
Research into memory reconsolidation continues to evolve rapidly, with several promising directions emerging.
Targeted Memory Reactivation During Sleep
Targeted Memory Reactivation (TMR) is a noninvasive tool to manipulate memory consolidation during sleep. TMR builds on the brain's natural processes of memory reactivation during sleep and aims to facilitate or bias these processes in a certain direction. The basis of this technique is the association of learning content with sensory cues, such as odors or sounds, that are presented during subsequent sleep to promote memory reactivation.
This approach leverages the brain's natural memory consolidation processes during sleep, potentially offering a less invasive way to modify memories.
Understanding Temporal Dynamics
Researchers are working to better understand the precise timing of reconsolidation processes. First, as mentioned in Box 1, reconsolidation is considered to last ∼ 6 h. However, reviewed evidence indicates that each receptor/pathway involved may have a unique temporal profile, suggesting that different aspects of memory may have different reconsolidation windows.
Personalized Approaches
Future treatments may become more personalized, taking into account individual differences in memory characteristics, trauma type, and neurobiological factors to optimize reconsolidation-based interventions for each patient.
Practical Steps in Reconsolidation-Based Therapy
For clinicians and patients interested in reconsolidation-based approaches, understanding the practical steps involved can help set appropriate expectations and ensure proper implementation.
Assessment and Preparation
Effective reconsolidation therapy begins with thorough assessment. To find out if a person can benefit from the Reconsolidation Therapy™, they must complete a trauma assessment questionnaire. This PTSD diagnosis makes it possible to establish whether the subject is indeed in a state of post-traumatic stress and whether they are eligible for therapy.
Memory Reactivation
Here are the basic steps in this therapy: REINSTATEMENT: Have the person retrieve the memory. Be sure that the retrieval is emotionally powerful. If the person avoids fully reactivating the memory in its complete painful form, then reduction of the emotional impact will be impossible.
This step requires careful clinical judgment. The memory must be activated sufficiently to destabilize it, but the process must remain safe and tolerable for the patient.
Introduction of Corrective Information
During the reconsolidation window, new information or experiences are introduced that contradict or modify the original memory. This might involve:
- Pharmacological interventions (such as propranolol) that reduce emotional arousal
- Cognitive reframing that provides new perspectives on the traumatic event
- Visualization exercises that modify specific elements of the memory
- Sensory experiences that create new associations with trauma-related cues
Monitoring and Follow-Up
At the end of each session, the patient completes the same PTSD assessment in order to measure the evolution of their symptoms and progress. Regular monitoring helps ensure the intervention is working and allows for adjustments as needed.
Integration with Other Treatment Modalities
Memory reconsolidation-based therapies need not replace existing treatments but can be integrated with other evidence-based approaches for comprehensive care.
Combining with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Reconsolidation techniques can be incorporated into cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) frameworks, potentially enhancing the effectiveness of cognitive restructuring and exposure-based interventions.
Medication Management
For some patients, reconsolidation therapy may reduce or eliminate the need for long-term medication use. However, careful coordination with prescribing physicians is essential when making any changes to medication regimens.
Complementary Approaches
Reconsolidation-based interventions can be combined with mindfulness practices, somatic therapies, and other complementary approaches to address the multiple dimensions of trauma recovery.
The Broader Implications of Memory Reconsolidation
The discovery of memory reconsolidation has implications that extend beyond clinical treatment, touching on fundamental questions about the nature of memory, identity, and human experience.
Rethinking Memory as Dynamic Rather Than Static
Yet, the world is an ever-changing environment, and humans—among many animals—have a remarkable ability to flexibly regulate our memories. Memories are constantly being formed as we have new experiences, and we filter which of these experiences should be stored, which past memories might now be obsolete and thus should be updated, which memories should be forgotten; and we use our memories to inform the way that we learn in the future.
This dynamic view of memory challenges traditional notions of memories as fixed records of the past. Instead, memories emerge as living, evolving representations that adapt to serve our current needs and future goals.
Implications for Understanding Identity
If our memories can be modified, what does this mean for personal identity, which is so intimately tied to our remembered experiences? These philosophical questions accompany the scientific advances in memory reconsolidation, requiring thoughtful consideration as the field progresses.
Applications Beyond Mental Health
Memory reconsolidation research may eventually inform approaches to education, skill learning, and even the treatment of neurological conditions affecting memory. Understanding how memories can be strengthened, weakened, or modified opens possibilities across many domains of human functioning.
Resources and Training for Clinicians
For mental health professionals interested in incorporating reconsolidation-based approaches into their practice, several training opportunities and resources are available.
Specialized Training Programs
Various organizations offer training in specific reconsolidation-based protocols, such as the RTM Protocol, Accelerated Resolution Therapy (ART), and propranolol-assisted therapy. These programs typically include both theoretical foundations and practical, supervised experience.
Continuing Education
As the field continues to evolve, staying current with the latest research and clinical developments is essential. Professional conferences, peer-reviewed journals, and online courses provide ongoing learning opportunities.
Ethical Practice Guidelines
Clinicians should ensure they practice within their scope of competence and follow ethical guidelines specific to memory-focused interventions. This includes obtaining informed consent, maintaining appropriate boundaries, and being transparent about the evidence base for specific approaches.
Patient Perspectives and Lived Experience
Understanding the patient experience of reconsolidation-based therapy provides valuable context for both clinicians and those considering treatment.
What to Expect During Treatment
Patients undergoing reconsolidation therapy typically report that the process feels different from traditional talk therapy. Rather than repeatedly discussing traumatic events in detail, they may engage in visualization exercises, take medication before sessions, or participate in other structured interventions designed to activate and modify specific memories.
So—because our memories are fragile and subject to alterations, memory can be "edited" and rebuilt so that healing happens. That is memory reconsolidation in therapy. When a person has PTSD, unwanted long-term memories of trauma do not fade like normal memories do, but instead stay fresh and can be recalled into short-term memory as if we are living with the experience with no sense of the past.
Hope for Complex Trauma
Even with this type of unknown past, memory reconsolidation can help. Memory reconsolidation can work for those with complex PTSD and heightened responses where one may assume healing is not possible. This offers hope for individuals with complex trauma histories who may have tried other treatments without success.
The Science Continues to Evolve
Memory reconsolidation research represents a rapidly advancing field, with new discoveries regularly refining our understanding and improving clinical applications.
Current Research Priorities
Researchers are currently focused on several key questions:
- Identifying biomarkers that can predict which patients will respond best to reconsolidation-based interventions
- Optimizing the timing and parameters of memory reactivation to maximize therapeutic effects
- Understanding individual differences in reconsolidation susceptibility
- Developing more precise methods for targeting specific memory components
- Exploring applications beyond trauma and anxiety disorders
Technological Advances
Emerging technologies, including advanced neuroimaging, virtual reality, and neurostimulation techniques, are opening new possibilities for studying and manipulating memory reconsolidation. These tools may eventually allow for more precise, personalized interventions.
Conclusion: A New Paradigm for Understanding and Treating Memory-Related Disorders
The science of memory reconsolidation has fundamentally transformed our understanding of how memories work and how they can be therapeutically modified. There is some emerging evidence of consolidation and reconsolidation therapies in the prevention and treatment of PTSD and intrusive memories specifically. This represents a paradigm shift from viewing memories as fixed records of the past to understanding them as dynamic, malleable representations that can be updated to serve adaptive functions.
For individuals suffering from PTSD, phobias, and other conditions rooted in distressing memories, reconsolidation-based therapies offer new hope. These approaches have the potential to provide faster, more effective relief than traditional treatments, with effects that may be more durable because they modify the original memory rather than simply creating competing associations.
However, important challenges remain. Clinical results have been mixed, and researchers are still working to understand the optimal conditions for therapeutic reconsolidation. Questions about timing, individual differences, and the precise mechanisms involved continue to drive research forward.
As the field matures, we can expect increasingly sophisticated and personalized approaches to memory modification. The integration of reconsolidation principles with other therapeutic modalities, combined with advances in neuroscience and technology, promises to enhance our ability to help those burdened by traumatic memories.
For clinicians, staying informed about developments in this field and seeking appropriate training in evidence-based reconsolidation protocols can expand the therapeutic tools available to help patients. For patients, understanding that memories are not immutable—that healing and change are possible even for long-standing traumatic memories—can provide hope and motivation for engaging in treatment.
The journey from laboratory discovery to widespread clinical application continues, but the science of memory reconsolidation has already demonstrated its potential to transform how we understand and treat memory-related suffering. As research progresses and clinical protocols are refined, these approaches may become standard components of trauma treatment, offering relief to millions who struggle with the lasting impact of distressing memories.
For more information on memory and neuroscience, visit the National Institute of Mental Health. To learn about current clinical trials investigating memory reconsolidation therapies, check ClinicalTrials.gov. The American Psychological Association provides resources on evidence-based treatments for PTSD and anxiety disorders. For those interested in the neuroscience of memory, the Society for Neuroscience offers educational materials and research updates. Finally, the National Center for PTSD provides comprehensive information on trauma treatment options, including emerging approaches based on memory reconsolidation.